It has been a long-held theory that the ancestors of the Kapampangans came from Indonesia,perhaps in Sumatra or Java.It is said that they came in waves starting as early as 300 B.C.Around the mid 1300's,Principe Balagtas led a group of Kapampangans to what later became Central Luzon.His great grandson Fernando Malong Balagtas was still alive and serving as a leader there when the Spanish conquistadores under Miguel Lopez de Legaspi conquered Manila in 1571. In my research,I found some similarities among the words being currently used by both the Indonesians and the Kapampangans.The examples given below could be a proof to show that,with such similarities of words used as indicated, Kapampangans must have really immigrated to Luzon island from Indonesia.It is also worth noting the old pamagkulit writing system which is derived from Brahmi system used in India.

Indonesian- Kapampangan- English

abu- abu- ash
aku- - acu - I
anak- - anac- child
anac laki-laki -anac a lalaqui - boy
angin - angin- wind
angkut - yacut - carry away
api - api - fire
asin - asin - salt
atap - atap - roof
babi - babi - pig
bangun - mibangun - get up
basah - basa - wet, wetness
batu - batu - stone
bistic - bistig - steak
bulan - bulan - moon, month
cincin - singsing - ring
cinta - sinta - love
datang - datang - arrive
dia - ya - him/her 
dinding - dingding - wall
dua - adua - two
dua puluh - aduam pulu- twenty
enam - anam - six
gunting - gunting - scissors
ini - ini - this
jala - dalan - road
kambing- cambing - goat
kami - cami - us
kuku - cucu - finger nail
lambat - malambat - slow
lima - lima - five
makan - mangan- eat
makanan - canan - food
mandi - mandilu - take a bath
mangkuk - mancuc - bowl
menangis - manangis - cry, weep
menimbang - manimbang - weigh
menyimpan - manyimpan - to wash and store
minum - minum - to drink
nasi - nasi - cooked rice
nyamuk - yamuc - mosquito
otak - utac - brain
pahit - mapait - bitter
payung - payung - umbrella
sabun - sabun - soap
sakit - masaquit - sick
sendok - sanduc - spoon, ladle
simpan - simpan - keep 
sulit - masulit - difficult
surat - sulat - letter (mail)
susu - susu - milk, breast
takut - tatacut - afraid
tali - tali - rope, string
tanda - tanda - sign
tua - matua - old
yang - yang - that

By Alejandro S. Camiling, CPA with Teresita Z. Camiling, BSE, MA

As we wrote in "The Province of Pampanga and Its People", it is believed that the early Kapampangan settlers along the river banks of the Rio Grande de la Pampanga in the Island of Luzon of the Philippine Archipelago were descendants of Malayan pioneers from the Malay Peninsula and from Singarak Lake of West Sumatra. These Malayan adventurers brought their advanced civilzation, their unique culture, their Traditions and a language of their own and founded their dynasty based on the social foundations of freedom and economic well-being.

This belief is strengthened by Juan Francisco de San Antonio's Cronicas de la Apostolica Provincia de S. Gregorio (Manila 1738) and Francisco Colin's Labor Evangelica, Madrid 1663 (Native Races and their Customs) that Pampangos (according to tradition) originated from the largest island of the Orient, which is that of Sumatra or Trapobana.

It was indicated that in the midst of the island of Sumatra there was a large lake, on whose surrounding marge many different peoples had their abodes. A Kapampangan who had lost his way reached that place who was interviewed by Fr. Colin himself, and having discovered that there were men there of his own build, language, and clothing, approached, and entered into conversation with them in his own elegant Kapampangan tongue. They answered him in the same speech, and one of their men said: "You are descendants of the lost people who in former times, left here to settle other lands, and have never been heard of since."

Based on what is written in "The Philippine Islands -1493 - 1898", a 55-volume series English translation from the originals by Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson in the early 1900s, it is difficult to determine whether the Kapampangans came directrly from Sumatra, or settled first in Borney, because of the nearness of its lands and domains, and thence passed on to settle the islands of this archipelago although it appeared from the statements of some who had been in Borney for a time that they even found there sufficient indications that the Kapampangan people, some came from Sumatra and some from Malayo.

The fact that many islets are lying in a row and near one another, with which Borney is closely connected, there is less difficulty in changing their abodes from one to the other; and it is believable that the Tagalogs, Kapampangans and other civilized races who were found in this archipelago, and who were almost alike in language, customs, bodily proportions, and clothing, came immediately from Borney, some from some provinces and some from others. This may be the reason for the little difference that is found among these Philippine ethnic groups.

The similarities in ancient customs, clothings, religion, food and languages seem to validate the connection between Malays and Kapampangans. However, over the years, contact with other nationalities made it difficult to preserve the purity of both languages and culture. Bahasa Malay and culture had been influenced by people from China, Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, Netherlands, India and other foreigners.

By Jed Pensar

Who are the Visayans and where do they come from? Before 500 AD, there are no known archaeological findings of native Southeast Asian Malay inscriptions. Thus, we have to rely on Chinese documents about Southeast Asia. Their records tell of five Southeast Asian states sending trade missions to South China between 430 to 473 AD. After that, the one known by its Chinese toponym Kan-t'o-li prevailed over its neighbors. Historian O.W. Wolters believes that this state was established near Palembang, Sumatra in the second century. Trade stopped during the 500's due to civil strife in China, and Kantoli was never heard of again. Inscriptions in Old Malay appear after 500 AD, notably in Sumatra, Banka Island, Java and the Malay Peninsula. Eight states emerged to resume trade with South China starting 608 AD but by 670 only one remained, Shih-li-fo-shih. Artifacts dated 775 AD from the Ligor isthmus of the Malay Peninsula, as examined by Southeast Asian history pioneer George Coedus, determined that the state known to the Chinese as Shihlifoshih was the same as Sri Vishaya.

Sri is an Indian honorific placed before the name of people and places. One familiar example of this usage is on the island of Lanka. Thus, the common name of Sri Vishaya was probably just Vishaya.

Now, consider that most Philippine languages do not have the 'v' and 'sh' sounds. These are pronounced as 'b' and 's' respectively. To some, Vishaya might have been known as Bisaya.

Like the Kantoli, Sri Vishaya warred on neighboring states. It was also based in Palembang. It is possible then that this state, which was known to the Arabs as Zapage, was the same entity as the Kantoli.

Sri Vishaya ruled from the Malay Peninsula up to perhaps Western Java at its peak. It had diplomats, traders, sailors, an international seaport, and, according to its own inscriptions, an army of 20,000. As middlemen, they monopolized the highly lucrative Persian trade.

Javanese records tell of raids against Sri Vishaya in 992 AD while the Tamils claim to have sacked Palembang in 1025. The death blow probably came when the Chinese manned their trading ships themselves, doing away with Vishaya middlemen.

Chinese monk I Tsing noted during his travels from 671-695 AD that Sri Vishaya practiced Mahayana Buddhism. If there is a direct link between the Sri Vishaya and the Bisaya of the Philippines, why does the latter show no traces of the Buddhist faith? Only the Vishaya aristocracy adhered to Mahayana. In spite of Mahayana's headstart, it was Hinayana that had greater success in the Southeast Asian mainland. The rest of Vishaya, probably ninety percent, remained animists. This explains the unencumbered spread of Islam later on. The migration of Visayans from the Malay Archipelago to Visayas in the Philippines must have consisted of animists.

Another author, Kenneth Scott Latourette, notes that the Vishaya established trading outposts in Taiwan. It makes it easy to suppose then that some of them migrated to the Philippines and settled in what is now the Visayas. So where was their first settlement? Probably in Cebu. Possibly not Bohol because some native arts there resemble the Bukidnon's in Mindanao. Negros likewise had sizable remnants of the Bukidnons until recently. Panay has a large population of Karay-as and Aklanons who may antedate the Visayans. Among its neighbors, Cebu seems to have had a Visayan identity for the longest time.

Three major ethnic groups call themselves Bisaya and their language Binisaya. They are the Ilongo, Cebuano and Waray. No matter that they speak three separate languages and have three distinct identities, still they are collectively known as Bisaya.Cebuano may be the purest form of Binisaya. Ilongo root words are mostly Cebuano, with a significant admixture of Tagalog. The Ilongos are also geographically close to the Tagalogs. Waray root words are also mostly Cebuano, with a significant admixture of Bicolano. The Warays are also geographically close to Bicol. In Mindanao, the native forms of Binisaya are dialects of the Cebuano language. Take note though that Cebuano language is a technical term that not all its native speakers are accustomed to.

One hypothesis is that Visayan consciousness and language spread from Cebu. Northwest it mixed with Tagalog, forming Ilongo, and northeast it mixed with Bicol, forming Waray. South to Mindanao, it retained its Cebuano form.

Alternatively, the northward spread gave birth successively to the Ilongo and Tagalog as well as the Waray and Bicolano languages. This hypothesis is correct only if it can be shown that Cebuano is relatively the oldest of the five languages while Bicolano and Tagalog are the youngest. Note also that Tagalog and Bicolano are intimately related to no other indigenous language in the Luzon mainland so it is not difficult to trace a Visayan root.

It does not follow that the Sri Vishaya spoke an archaic form of Cebuano. Ilongos, Cebuanos and Warays share the same root and may in fact have descended from the Sri Vishaya, an empire acknowledged today to be one of the greatest Malayo-Polynesian nations ever. They share equally of this sterling heritage.

Ages before Manila imposed its Tagalog language on the Philippines, Visayans already were predominant outside of Luzon. In Samar and the Leytes. In coastal Iloilo, Capiz (where an unusual form of Ilongo, Capisnon, is spoken) and the Negroses. In Southern Masbate, Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, Camiguin, Misamis, Lanao del Norte, Zamboanga, Agusan, Surigao (where an unusual form of Cebuano, Surigaonon, is spoken), Bukidnon and Davao. Curiously, the Karay-as and Aklanons of Panay also consider themselves Bisaya. Binisaya is not how they call their languages though. They must be pre-Visayan peoples with their own proud history and traditions who have since coexisted with their Ilongo-Bisaya neighbors.

It is never too late to expand one's knowledge of the past. Embarrassing as it may be to the Manila government that the Bisaya it has tirelessly repressed is indeed descended from the great Sri Vishaya, the pursuit of historical truth justifies itself. If not, then for the sake of our young who can only take so much of self-serving and subjective official Philippine history.

It is an ancient kingdom of Indochina known in the past as "Lâm Â'p" ( or Lin Yi ), then Chiêm Thành ( or Tchan-Tcheng in Chinese) and located in what is now central Vietnam between Dà Nang and Phan Thiê't. The amazing Cham towers in red bricks and sandstone found in Dà Nang and Phan Thiê't are the sole silent witnesses of a civilization vanished in the turbulence of history. The Chams were no doubts of Indonesian origin and occupied the coasts of central and south Vietnam. In 2nd century, this people of sailors adopted Hinduism on contact with Indian merchants, which gave birth to the kingdom of Champa.

A Chinese traveller of 4th century described them with a particular typical physique: Big straight nose, black and curly hair, practicing a funeral ritual that consists of cremation at the sound of the drum. The Chàms were not only excellent sailors but also formidable builders and ingenious farmers. The Chàms arrived at achieving the unity of the country at the beginning of 5th century after having resisted several rounds of Chinese domination attempt. Their capital was located at Indrapura ( Trà Kiê?u ), near Dà Nang ( former Tourane of the French) from 7th to 9th century.

Thanks to the silk, spices, and ivory trade between China on one hand and India and the Muslim world on the other, this kingdom experienced a period of prosperity that was troubled first by the conquest of the Khmers in 1145-1147 then next by the policy of expansion of Kubilai Khan's Mongols. To face this domination, the Chàms sought alliance with Vietnam, which allowed the Chàms and the Vietnamese to come out victorious during this confrontation.

To seal this union, a Vietnamese princess of the name Huyê`n Trân of the Tran dynasty, sister of king Trâ`n Anh Tôn was proposed to become in 1306 the wife of the Champa king Chê' Mâ~n (Jaya Simhavarman) in exchange for the two Cham territories Châu Ô and Châu Ri', located at the Hai Vân Pass. These are no other than the two northern provinces Quang Tri. and Thu*`a Thiên of presently Vietnam (Huê'). This union was of short term. The Vietnamese continued to claim more land toward the South and the death of king Che Man a year after his marriage without an heir was only an additional pretext in the conquest of Champa. The king of Vietnam set up a plot by sending his general Trâ`n Kha('c Chung to rescue his sister, who had to be sacrificed according to the Cham tradition, at the funeral of her husband. The provinces of Châu Ô and Châu Ri' became then the subject of discord between Champa and Vietnam. The Chams had a burst of energy with king Chê' Bô`ng Nga ( Binasuor ) who struck the Vietnamese several times by ransacking the capital Thang Long in 1372 and 1377. But he was assassinated in 1389 during a new invasion of Vietnam and his death marked the decline of the Chams. The Vietnamese annexed this kingdom around 1470 under the Lê dynasty with king Lê Tha'nh Tôn.